2.6 Theoretical Perspectives on Risk Perception

2.6.1 Psychometric Paradigm

The psychometric paradigm is one of the most influential theoretical frameworks for understanding how individuals perceive and evaluate risks. Originating from the work of Slovic and colleagues, the paradigm posits that risk perception is not solely determined by statistical probabilities or expert assessments, but is significantly shaped by qualitative, subjective attributes associated with a hazard. These attributes include perceived dread, familiarity, controllability, catastrophic potential, visibility, and scientific uncertainty (Onwudiegwu et al, 2025; Tambo et al, 2024).

Within this framework, chemical hazards such as pesticide residues in food are often perceived as particularly threatening because they are invisible, complex, and largely involuntary. Consumers cannot easily detect pesticide residues through taste, smell, or appearance, nor can they control exposure once food enters the market. This lack of sensory cues and personal control increases feelings of vulnerability and heightens perceived risk, even when scientific risk assessments suggest low probability at regulated exposure levels (Slovic, 2021).

The psychometric paradigm distinguishes between “known risks” (those that are familiar and well understood) and “unknown risks” (those that are novel, poorly understood, or associated with delayed effects). Pesticide residues typically fall into the latter category, particularly in developing-country contexts where public access to risk information is limited. Chronic health effects (such as endocrine disruption or carcinogenic outcomes) are delayed and uncertain, which further amplifies public concern and fear. Research indicates that risks perceived as having long-term, irreversible consequences generate stronger emotional responses than acute, immediately observable hazards (van der Linden, 2022).

In the Nigerian context, the psychometric paradigm is particularly relevant due to weak regulatory visibility and trust deficits (Afolayan & Bankole, 2023). Where regulatory institutions are perceived as ineffective or corrupt, public confidence in official food safety assurances diminishes. As a result, consumers may rely more heavily on heuristics, anecdotal evidence, and media narratives when assessing risk. Studies on food safety perception in Nigeria show there is low trust in government agencies amplifies dread and uncertainty, thus, reinforcing the perception that pesticide residues pose a serious and poorly managed threat (Ejimerhomu et al, 2025; Afolayan & Bankole, 2023; Gbadegesin et al, 2025).

Another core element of the psychometric paradigm is perceived controllability. Risks that individuals feel unable to control (such as pesticide exposure through purchased food) are consistently rated as more dangerous than risks perceived as voluntary or manageable (Olatilewa et al, 2024). Nigerian consumers typically have limited capacity to verify production practices, residue levels, or compliance with safety standards, particularly in informal food markets. This structural lack of control intensifies perceived risk and shapes avoidance behaviours such as preference for home-grown food or distrust of certain food categories (Afolayan & Bankole, 2023).

The paradigm also explains why public concern about pesticides may persist even in the absence of widespread acute poisoning events. Emotional responses such as fear, anxiety, and outrage play a central role in shaping perception, often outweighing statistical risk estimates. Additionally, media reports of pesticide misuse, contamination scandals, or farmer poisonings can act as risk amplification mechanisms thereby heightening public anxiety and reinforcing perceptions of danger irrespective of actual exposure levels (Kasperson et al, 2021; Olatilewa et al, 2024).

Importantly, the psychometric paradigm highlights the gap between expert and lay risk assessments. While scientific experts focus on dose–response relationships and regulatory thresholds such as Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs), consumers tend to evaluate pesticide risks through moral, emotional, and social lenses (Oshatunberu et al, 2023). This divergence can lead to public resistance to official reassurances and scepticism toward regulatory decisions, especially where transparency and communication are limited (Adebayo & Adeoye, 2023).

In summary, the psychometric paradigm provides a powerful explanatory lens for understanding why pesticide residues are perceived as highly risky by the public, particularly in contexts characterised by regulatory weakness, information asymmetry, and low institutional trust. Applying this framework to the Nigerian food system helps explain persistent consumer anxiety, distrust in food safety governance, and behavioural responses such as avoidance, reliance on informal knowledge networks, or preference for perceived “natural” foods. As such, the paradigm is central to analysing public perception of food safety in relation to pesticide use and informs the interpretation of findings in the present study.